ESTONIAN ACADEMY
PUBLISHERS
eesti teaduste
akadeemia kirjastus
PUBLISHED
SINCE 1997
 
TRAMES cover
TRAMES. A Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences
ISSN 1736-7514 (Electronic)
ISSN 1406-0922 (Print)
Impact Factor (2024): 0.5

Research article
WAYS THAT WE ARE WRONG: INFORMATIONAL VULNERABILITY IN THE DIGITAL AGE; pp. 115–134
PDF | https://doi.org/10.3176/tr.2026.1.06

Authors
Ignas Kalpokas, Ainius Lašas ORCID Icon, Arvydas Grišinas ORCID Icon
Abstract

This paper is a theoretical contribution to an ongoing debate regarding the current predicament of truth and knowledge in the era of digital information overflow. It suggests that instead of an ‘era of post-truth’ in a literal sense, we should talk about a specific period of human informational vulnerability. The paper proposes a scheme for analysing human cognitive patterns that emerge when facing the confusing and murky reality of information flows. The proposed model is demonstrated analysing the main characteristics of conspiratorial narratives and ways in which the above-mentioned cognitive patterns interact with these narratives. As a result, the paper achieves two things: first, it presents informational vulnerability as a normal and natural human process, and second, it introduces a systematic approach for analysing it and interpreting public narratives.

References

Adam-Troian, J. et al. (2021) “Investigating the links between cultural values and belief in conspiracy theories: the key roles of collectivism and masculinity.” Political Psychology42, 597–618. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12716

Andrejevic, Mark (2020) Automated media. London and New York: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429242595

Ball, James (2017) Post-truth: how bullshit conquered the world. London: Biteback Publishing.

Baron, Ian Z. (2018) How to save politics in a post-truth era. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526126832.00010

Bermes, Andreas (2021) “Information overload and fake news sharing: a transactional stress perspective exploring the mitigating role of consumers’ resilience during COVID-19”. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services61, 102555. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2021.102555

Brotherton, Robert (2016) Suspicious minds: why we believe conspiracy theories. Bloomsbury: Sigma.
https://doi.org/10.5040/9781472944528

Bufacchi, Vittorio (2021) “Truth, lies and tweets: a consensus theory of post-truth”. Philosophy and Social Criticism 47, 3, 347–361.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0191453719896382

Butter, Michael (2020) The nature of conspiracy theories. Cambridge: Polity Press.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429452734-5_10

Couldry, Nick and Andreas Hepp (2017) The mediated construction of reality. Cambridge and Malden: Polity.

d’Ancona, Matthew (2017) Post truth: the new war on truth and how to fight back. London: Ebury Press.

Dahlgren, Peter (2018) “Media, knowledge and trust: the deepening epistemic crisis of democracy”. Javnost – The Public25, 1, 20–27.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2018.1418819

Douglas, Karen M. et al. (2019) “Understanding conspiracy theories”. Advances in Political Psychology 40, 13–35.
https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12568

Douglas, Karen M. and Robbie M. Sutton (2018) “Why conspiracy theories matter: a social psycho-logical analysis”. European Review of Social Psychology 29, 1, 256–298.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2018.1537428

Douglas, Karen M., Robbie M. Sutton, and Aleksandra Cichocka (2017) “The psychology of conspi-racy theories”. Current Directions in Psychological Science 26, 6, 538–542.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417718261

Doyle, William and Christina Roda, eds. (2019) Communication in the era of attention scarcity. London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20918-6

Ecker, Ullrich K. H. (2018) “Why rebuttals may not work: the psychology of misinformation”. Media Asia 44, 2, 79–87.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01296612.2017.1384145

Enroth, Henrik (2023) “Crisis of authority: the truth of posttruth”. International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 36, 179–195. 
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10767-021-09415-6

Foroughi, Hamid, Yiannis Gabriel, and Marianna Fotaki (2019) “Leadership in a post-truth era: a new narrative disorder?”. Leadership 15, 2, 135–151.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715019835369

Gil de Zúñiga, Homero, Brian Weeks, and Adriana Ardèvol-Abreu (2017) “Effects of the news-finds-me perception in communication: social media use implications for news seeking and learning about politics”. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 22: 102–123.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12185

Grišinas, Arvydas (2025) The Western crisis of truth in the early 21st century: as the enlightenment dims. London and New York: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003380627

Guo, Jing and Hsin-Tien Chen (2022) “How does multi-platform social media use lead to biased news engagement? Examining the role of counter-attitudinal incidental exposure, cognitive elaboration, and network homogeneity”. Social Media + Society 8, 4. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051221129140

Harambam, Jeroen, Kristina Grusauskaite, and Loeske de Wildt (2022) “Poly-truth, or the limits of pluralism: popular debates on conspiracy theories in a post-truth era”. Public Understanding of Science 31, no. 6: 784–798.
https://doi.org/10.1177/09636625221092145

Harjuniemi, Tiina (2022) “Post-truth, fake news and the liberal ‘regime of truth’: the double movement between Lippmann and Hayek”. European Journal of Communication 37, 3, 269–283.
https://doi.org/10.1177/02673231211046784

Harsin, Jayson (2019) “Political attention: a genealogy of reinscriptions”. In William Doyle and Christina Roda, eds. Communication in the era of attention scarcity, 75–113. London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20918-6_7

Hepp, Andreas (2020) Deep mediatization. London and New York: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351064903

Hepp, Andreas, Andreas Breiter, and Ulrike Hasebrink, eds. (2018) Communicative figurations: transformative communications in times of deep mediatization. London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65584-0

Holmstrom, Mikael (2015) “The narrative and social media”. Defence Strategic Communications 1, 1, 119–133.
https://doi.org/10.30966/2018.riga.1.7

Hopkin, Jonathan and Ben Rosamond (2017) “Post-truth politics, bullshit and bad ideas: ‘deficit fetishism’ in the UK”. New Political Economy23, 6, 641–655. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13563467.2017.1373757

Kalpokas, Ignas (2019) A political theory of post-truth. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97713-3

Kavanagh, James and Michael D. Rich (2018) Truth decay: an initial exploration of the diminishing role of facts and analysis in American public life. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.
https://doi.org/10.7249/RR2314

Kim, Jihwan W. (2018) “Rumor has it: the effects of virality metrics in rumor believability and transmission on twitter”. New Media & Society20, 12, 4807–4825. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818784945

Lašas, Ainius (2023) Backstage democracy: the dynamics of business-politics nexus in Lithuania. Cham : Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25531-1

Lašas, Algirdas, Arvydas Grišinas, and Ignas Kalpokas (2025) “Dystopian perception: determinants of popular support for conspiracy theories in Lithuania”. Journal of Baltic Studies,1–28. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/01629778.2025.2579551

Mazarr, Michael J. et al. (2019) The emerging risk of virtual societal warfare: social manipulation in a changing information environment. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.
https://doi.org/10.7249/RR2714

McDermott, Rose (2019) “Psychological underpinnings of post-truth in political beliefs”. PS: Political Science & Politics 52, no. 2: 218–222. 
https://doi.org/10.1017/S104909651800207X

McIntyre, Lee C. (2018) Post-truth. Cambridge, MA, and London: MIT Press.
https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11483.001.0001

MITRE Corporation (1999) Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures – CVE® The Standard for Information Security Vulnerability Names. Bedford, MA. Available online at 
https://makingsecuritymeasurable.mitre.org/docs/cve-intro-handout.pdf. Accessed on 11.02.2026.

Nikžentaitis, Alvydas (2019) “Culture of memory and politics of history in Lithuania in 1989–2018”. Institute of National Remembrance Review 1, 119–163.

Oleksy, Tomasz et al. (2021) “Content matters. different predictors and social consequences of general and government-related conspiracy theories on COVID-19”. Personality and Individual Differences 168: 1–7.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110289

O’Shaughnessy, Nicholas (2020) “From disinformation to fake news: forwards into the past”. In by Philip Baines, Nicholas O’Shaughnessy, and Nick Snow, eds. The SAGE handbook of propaganda, 55–70. Los Angeles and London: SAGE.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526477170.n5

Schindler, Sebastian (2020) “The task of critique in times of post-truth politics”. Review of International Studies 46, 3, 376–394.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210520000091

Scriven, Michael and Richard Paul (1987) “Defining Critical thinking”. The Foundation of Critical Thinking. Available online at 
https://www.criticalthinking.org/template.php?pages_id=766. Accessed on 28.12.2022.

Sloman, Steven and Philip Fernbach (2017) The knowledge illusion: why we never think alone. New York: Riverhead Books.

Song, Ha, Homero Gil de Zúñiga, and Hajo G. Boomgarden (2020) “Social media news use and political cynicism: differential pathways through ‘news finds me’ perception”. Mass Communication and Society 23, 1, 47–70.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2019.1651867

Suiter, Jane (2016) “Post-truth politics”. Political Insight 7, 3, 25–27.
https://doi.org/10.1177/2041905816680417

Syvertsen, Trine (2020) Digital detox: the politics of disconnecting. Bingley: Emerald Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1108/9781787693395

Tandoc, Edson C. and Hye Kyung Kim (2022) “Avoiding real news, believing in fake news? Investigating pathways from information overload to misbelief”. Journalism24, 6, 1174–1192. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/14648849221090744

Tuminez, Astrid S. (2003) “Nationalism, ethnic pressures, and the breakup of the Soviet Union”. Journal of Cold War Studies5, 4, 81–136. 
https://doi.org/10.1162/152039703322483765

Tversky, Amos and Daniel Kahneman (1974) “Judgment under uncertainty: heuristics and biases”. Science185, 4157, 1124–1131. 
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124

Vaccari, Cristian and Andrew Chadwick (2020) “Deepfakes and disinformation: exploring the impact of synthetic political video on deception, uncertainty, and trust in news”. Social Media + Society6, 1. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120903408

van Dijck, José, Thomas Poell, and Martijn de Waal (2018) The platform society: public values in a connective world. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190889760.001.0001

van Prooijen, Jan-Willem (2018) The psychology of conspiracy theories. London and New York: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315525419

van Prooijen, Jan-Willem and Karen M. Douglas (2018) “Belief in conspiracy theories: basic principles of an emerging research domain”. European Journal of Social Psychology 48, 7, 897–908.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2530

van Prooijen, Jan-Willem and Mark van Vugt (2018) “Conspiracy theories: evolved functions and psychological mechanisms”. Perspectives on Psychological Science 13, 6, 770–788.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691618774270

Weick, Karl E., Kathleen M. Sutcliffe, and David Obstfeld (2005) “Organizing and the process of sensemaking”. Organization Science 16, 4, 409–421.
https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1050.0133

Woolley, Samuel (2020) The reality game: how the next wave of technology will break the truth and what we can do about it. London: Endeavour.

Back to Issue

Choose new content alerts