Studies on the Cold War often emphasize its inevitability due to the ideological rift between the United States and the Soviet Union, particularly after 1948. This study analyses primary documents to explore the concept of ‘frenemies’ in the United Nations, focusing on two key issues: international military and global disarmament. Findings reveal the existence of three political-ideological camps by early 1946. The first, led by the United States, was internally divided between globalist and militarized approaches. The second was the communist camp led by the Soviet Union, and the third was the imperialist camp led by the UK and France. Each camp envisioned global security institutions aligned with its ideology. Proposals for international military and disarmament threatened these visions, intensifying tensions. By 1947, discussions in the UN polarized the powers and pushed the UK and France to align with the US, solidifying its dominance over Western security models.
Bellamy, Alex J., Paul Williams, and Stuart Griffin (2010) Understanding peacekeeping. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Berenskoetter, Felix (2007) “Friends, there are no friends? An intimate reframing of the international”. Millennium 35, 3, 647–676.
https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298070350031501
Blavoukos, Spyros and Dimitris Bourantonis (2014) “Calling the bluff of the Western powers in the United Nations disarmament negotiations, 1954–55”. Cold War History 14, 3, 359–376.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14682745.2013.871261
Boulden, Jane (1993) Prometheus unborn: the history of the Military Staff Committee. Ottawa: Canadian Center for Global Security.
Diehl, Paul, and Alexandru Balas (2014) Peace operations. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Frazier, Robert (2009) “Kennan, ‘universalism’, and the Truman Doctrine “. Journal of Cold War Studies 11, 2, 3–34.
https://doi.org/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.2.3
Gaddis, John Lewis (1972) The United States and the origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947. New York: Columbia University Press.
Gaiduk, Ilya V. (2012) Divided together: the United States and the Soviet Union in the United Nations, 1945–1965. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
Grove, Eric (1993) “UN Armed Forces and the Military Staff Committee: a look back”. International Security 17, 4, 172–182.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2539026
Haas, Mark L. (2022) Frenemies: when ideological enemies ally. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
https://doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501761232.001.0001
Hildebrand, Robert C. (2001) Dumbarton oaks: the origins of the United Nations and the search for postwar security. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
Holloway, David (2016) “The Soviet Union and the creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency”. Cold War History 16 (2): 177–193.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14682745.2015.1124265
Kertcher, Chen (2016) The United Nations and peacekeeping, 1988–1995. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526100337
Kertcher, Chen and Dima Course (2024) “The practice of friendship balancing: Russia-Israel relations, 2015 to 2021”. Middle East Policy31, 67–82.
https://doi.org/10.1111/mepo.12743
Kupchan, Charles A. (2010) How enemies become friends: the sources of stable peace. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400834419
Lanoszka, Alexander (2022) Military alliances in the twenty first century. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Luard, Evan (1982) A history of the United Nations. Vol. 1: The years of Western domination, 1945–1955. London: Macmillan Press.
Luck, Edward C. (2010) “A council for all seasons: the creation of the Security Council and its relevance today”. In Vaughan Lowe, Adam Roberts, Jennifer Welsh, and Dominik Zaum, eds. The United Nations Security Council and war: the evolution of thought and practice, 61–85. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199533435.003.0002
Merrill, Dennis (2006) “TheTruman Doctrine: containing Communism and modernity”. Presidential Studies Quarterly 36, 1, 27–37.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00284.x
Novosselof, Alexandra (2018) The UN Military Staff Committee: recreating a missing capacity. New York: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315173863
O’Sullivan, Christopher D. (2008) Sumner Welles, postwar planning, and the quest for a new world order, 1937–1943. New York: Columbia University Press.
Oelsner, Andrea and Simon Koschut (2014) “A framework for the study of international friendship”. In Simon Koschut and Andrea Oelsner, eds. Friendship and international relations, 3–31. Houndsmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137396341_1
Peoples, Columba and Nick Vaughan-Williams (2021) Critical security studies: an introduction. 3rd ed. London: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429274794
Ramsbotham, Oliver, Tom Woodhouse, and Hugh Miall (2016) Contemporary conflict resolution. 4th ed. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Resnick, Evan N. (2019) Allies of convenience: a theory of bargaining in U.S. foreign policy. New York: Columbia University Press.
https://doi.org/10.7312/resn19058
Ripsman, Norrin M. (2017) “Neoclassical realism”. International studies: Oxford research encyclopedia of international studie.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.36
Russell, Ruth B. (1958) A history of the United Nations Charter: the role of the United States, 1940–1945. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institute.
Rynning, Sten and Olivier Schmitt (2018) “Alliances”. In Alexandra Gheciu and William C. Wohlforth, eds. The Oxford handbook of international security, 653–667. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198777854.013.44
Schlesinger, Stephen C. (2004) Act of creation: the founding of the United Nations. New York: Westview Press.
Shiff, Amira and Chen Kertcher (2024) “Silent alliances and shifting tides: unveiling the hidden pathways to resolving interstate rivalries – the UAE-Israel case”. The International Journal of Conflict Management 35, 1, 174–191.
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCMA-01-2023-0006
Sloan, James (2014) “The evolution of the use of force in UN peacekeeping”. Journal of Strategic Studies 37, 5, 674–702.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2014.921853
Snyder, Glenn H. (1990) “Alliance theory: a neorealist first cut”. Journal of International Affairs 44, 1, 103–123.
Tahiroğlu, Merve and Behnam Ben Taleblu (2015) “Turkey and Iran: the best of frenemies” Turkish Policy Quarterly 14, 1, 123–134.
Tov, Yaacov Bar-Siman (2007) “Dialectic between conflict management and conflict resolution”. In Yaacov Bar-Siman Tov, ed. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict, 9–40. Houndsmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230603110_2
United Nations Information Organizations (1945) Documents of the United Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco, 1945. Vol. 3. New York: United Nations Information Organizations.
Walt, Stephen M. (1987) The origins of alliances. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Waltz, Kenneth N. (1979) Theory of international politics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Wiebes, Cees and Bert Zeeman (1983) “The Pentagon negotiations March 1948: the launching of the North Atlantic Treaty”. International Affairs 59, 3, 351–363.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2618790
Zimmerman, Andreas (2012) “Article 27 “. In Bruno Simma, Daniel-Erasmus Khan, Georg Nolte, and Andreas Paulus, eds. The Charter of the United Nations: a commentary, 875–881. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sources
“Department of State Position Paper, 14 October 1946.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. 1, pp. 953–955. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“Establishment of a Commission to Deal with the Problems Raised by the Discovery of Atomic Energy, 24 January 1946.” United Nations, A/RES/1.
“General Principles Governing the Organization of the Armed Forces Made Available to the Security Council by Member Nations of the United Nations, 30 April 1947.” United Nations, S/336.
“‘Guidance for J.C.S. Representatives on the Military Staff Committee, U.N., on Making all National Forces Available to the Security Council’: The State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee to the Secretary of State, 14 September 1946.” Foreign Relations of the United States, vol. 1, pp. 917–919. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“Memorandum by the Director of the Policy Planning Staff (Kennan) to the Secretary of State and the Under Secretary of State (Lovett), 7 May 1948.” Foreign Relations of the United States, vol. 1, part 2, pp. 339–340. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“Memorandum by the Secretary of War (Patterson) to the Secretary of State, 1 November 1945.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. 1, pp. 1111–1112. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“Memorandum of Conversation, by Mr. Howard C. Johnson, Jr., of the Division of International Security Affairs, 28 June 1948.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1948, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 357–358. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“Memorandum of Conversation, by the Associate Chief of the Division of International Security Affairs (Blaisdell), 1 April 1946.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. 1, pp. 771–773. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“Memorandum of Telephone Conversation, by the Director of the Office of Special Political Affairs (Hiss), 23 April 1946.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. 1, pp. 779–780. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“Mr. George F. Kennan to the Under Secretary of State (Acheson), 18 July 1946.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. 1, pp. 860–865. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“Notes Regarding Status of SWNCC 219/8: U.S. Guidance as to the Armed Forces to be Made Available to the Security Council of the United Nations, 1 April 1946.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. 1, pp. 769–771. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“Position Paper Prepared in the Division of International Security Affairs, 12 September 1947.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947, vol. 1, pp. 652–656. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“Principles to be Advocated by U.S. In Preparing Military Agreements Between Security Council and Member Nations of U.N.O, 15 March 1946.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. 1, pp. 759–760. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“Proposed U.S. Contribution to the United Nations Security Forces”: Memorandum by the United States Army Representative on the United Nations Military Staff Committee to the United States Army Chief of Staff, 19 September 1947.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947, vol. 1, pp. 663–664. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“Provision of Armed Forces for Use by the Security Council, 26 April 1948.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1948, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 337–339. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“‘Regulation and Reduction of Conventional Armaments and Armed Forces,’ Position Paper Prepared in the Division of International Security Affairs, 12 September 1947.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947, vol. 1, pp. 652–656. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“Report of the Security Council to the General Assembly 1946–1947, September 1947, United Nations, A/336.
“Report of the Security Council to the General Assembly 1947–1948, September 1948, United Nations, A/620.
“Security Council Official Records 139th Meeting, 6 June 1947.” UN S/PV.139, 6 June 1947.
“Summary of the Sequence of Events Relating to Work of the United Nations Military Staff Committee on Article 43 of the United Nations Charter, New York, 12–18 September 1946, 18 September 1946.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. 1, pp. 914–915. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“‘SWNCC 240/1 Subject: Military Guidance on the Regulation of Armaments.’ Memorandum by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to the State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee, 9 December 1945.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. 1, pp. 1091–1092. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“‘SWNCC 38/25 Overall Examination of U.S. Requirements for Military Bases and Rights.’ Memorandum by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to the Secretary of State, 7 November 1945.” Foreign Relations of the United States, vol. 1, pp. 1113–1118. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“The Acting United States Representative at the United Nations (Jessup) to the Secretary of State, 21 June 1948.” Foreign Relations of the United States, vol. 1, part 2, pp. 350–354. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“‘The Conclusion of Special Agreements Under Article 43 and Organization of the United Nations Armed Forces.’ Position Paper Prepared in the Department of State, 8 September 1947.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947, vol. 1, p. 639. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“The Secretary of State at New York to the Acting Secretary of State, 18 September 1947.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947, vol. 1, p. 663. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“The State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee to the Secretary of State, 14 September 1946.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. 1, pp. 917–919. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“The United States Representatives on the Military Staff Committee to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 6 November 1946.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. 1, pp. 996–997. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“United Nations Security Council Resolution on the Establishment of the Military Staff Committee, 25 January 1946, United Nations, S/RES/1.
“United States Policy in the United Nations for the International Control of Atomic Energy, 9 April 1948.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1948, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 323–335. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.
“Verbatim Minutes of the First Meeting of Commission III, 12 June 1945.” In Documents of the United Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco, 1945, vol. 11, pp. 23–27. New York: United Nations Information Organizations.
“Verbatim Minutes of the Sixth Plenary Session, 1 May 1945.” In Documents of the United Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco, 1945, vol. 1, pp. 451–455. New York: United Nations Information Organizations.
“‘Visit to Office of Mr. Bernard Baruch.’ Memorandum by the United States Representatives on the Military Staff Committee to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 7 June 1946.” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. 1, pp. 844–845. Washington, DC: Office of the Historian.