This paper presents findings for the tonal contrast and phonation differences between words with and without stød in Livonian spontaneous speech. Livonian differentiates between two contrastive phonological tones: the broken tone or stød and the plain tone. Stød is similar to the Danish stød in some respects and is said to be part of the tone systems of the phonologies of languages in the Baltic region. The findings show that the tonal contrast between words with and without stød tends to be neutralised in Livonian spontaneous speech, but there are individual differences between speakers and also differences between men and women. The most common non-modal phonation period categories in words with stød are creaky and tense. The results also indicate that stød disappears when the word has no prominence.
Balode, Laimute & Holvoet, Axel 2001, The Lithuanian language and its dialects. — Circum-Baltic Languages. Volume 1: Past and Present, Amsterdam—Philadelphia: John Benjamins (Studies in Language Companion Series 54), 41—79.
https://doi.org/10.1075/slcs.54.05bal
Balodis, Uldis 2018, Non-modal phonation associated with stød vowels in Livonian. — ESUKA 9 (2), 165—187.
https://doi.org/10.12697/jeful.2018.9.2.08
Boersma, Paul & Weenink, David 2022—2023, Praat: doing phonetics by computer [Computer program].
http://www.praat.org/.
Cangemi, Francesco & Baumann, Stefan 2020, Integrating phonetics and phonology in the study of linguistic prominence. — Journal of Phonetics 81, 1—6.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2020.100993
Cucchiarini, Catia & Strik, Helmer & Boves, Lou 2002, Quantitative assessment of second language learners’ fluency: Comparisons between read and spontaneous speech. — Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 111 (6), 2862—2873.
https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1471894
Dogil, Grzegorz 1999, Baltic languages. — Word Prosodic Systems in the Languages of Europe, Berlin—New York: Mouton de Gruyter (Empirical Approaches to Language Typology [EALT]), 877—896.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110197082.2.877
Ernštreits, Valts 2012, Livonian in the 21st century. — Les langues finno-ougriennes aujourd’hui I, Paris (Études finno-ougriennes 44).
https://doi.org/10.4000/efo.675
Ernštreits, Valts & Kļava, Gunta 2014, Grammatical changes caused by contact between Livonian and Latvian. — ESUKA 5 (1), 77—90.
https://doi.org/10.12697/jeful.2014.5.1.05
Esposito, Christina M. 2004, Santa Ana del Valle Zapotec phonation. — UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics 103, 71—105.
Fischer-Jørgensen, Eli 1989, A Phonetic Study of the Stød in Standard Danish, Turku: University of Turku.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000261828
Goldshtein, Yonatan 2023, Outline of a Prosodic Theory of Stød. PhD Thesis, Aarhus University.
Gordon, Matthew & Ladefoged, Peter 2001, Phonation types: a cross-linguistic overview. — Journal of Phonetics 29 (4), 383—406.
https://doi.org/10.1006/jpho.2001.0147
Grønnum, Nina 2022, Three quarters of a century of phonetic research on common Danish stød. — Nordic Journal of Linguistics, 1—32.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0332586522000178
Grønnum, Nina & Basbøll, Hans 2001, Consonant Length, Stød and Morae in Standard Danish. — Phonetica 58 (4), 230—253.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000046177
Grønnum, Nina & Basbøll, Hans 2007, Danish stød: phonological and cognitive issues. — Experimental Approaches to Phonology, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 192—206.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199296675.003.0013
Grønnum, Nina & Vazquez-Larruscaín, Miguel & Basbøll, Hans 2013, Danish Stød: Laryngealization or Tone. — Phonetica 70 (1—2), 66—92.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000354640
Grünthal, Riho & Heyd, Volker & Holopainen, Sampsa & Janhunen, Juha & Khanina, Olesya & Miestamo, Matti & Nichols, Johanna & Saarikivi, Janne & Sinnemäki, Kaius 2022, Drastic demographic events triggered the Uralic spread. — Diachronica. Volume 39, Issue 4, Aug 2022, 490—524.
https://doi.org/10.1075/dia.20038.gru
Kaland, Constantijn & Swerts, Marc & Himmelmann, Nicolaus P. 2023, Red and blue bananas: Time-series f0 analysis of contrastively focused noun phrases in Papuan Malay and Dutch. — Journal of Phonetics. Volume 96, January 2023.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2022.101200
Kariņš, Arturs Krišjānis 1996, The Prosodic Structure of Latvian. PhD dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
Keating, Patricia & Garellek, Marc 2015, Acoustic analysis of creaky voice.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270760538_Acoustic_analysis_of_creaky_voice
Kettunen, Lauri 1925, Untersuchung über die livische Sprache I. Phonetische Einführung. Sprachproben, Tartu (ACUT B VIII).
Kiparsky, Paul 2017, Livonian stød. — Segmental Structure and Tone, Berlin—Boston: Walter De Gruyter, 195—210.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110341263-007
Koptjevskaja-Tamm, Maria 2006, The Circle That Won’t Come Full: Two Potential Isoglosses in the Circum-Baltic Area. — Linguistic Areas. Convergence in Historical and Typological Perspective, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 182—226.
https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230287617_8
Koptjevskaja-Tamm, Maria & Wälchli, Bernhard 2001, The Circum-Baltic languages: An areal-typological approach. — Circum-Baltic Languages. Typology and Contact. Volume 2: Grammar and Typology (Studies in Language Companion Series 55), Amsterdam—Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 615—750.
https://doi.org/10.1075/slcs.55
https://doi.org/10.1075/slcs.55.15kop
Laan, Gitta P. M. 1997, The contribution of intonation, segmental durations, and spectral features to the perception of a spontaneous and a read speaking style. — Speech Communication 22, 43—65.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-6393(97)00012-5
Labov, William 2001, Principles of Linguistic Change. Social Factors, Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, Inc. (Language in Society 29).
Lang, Valter 2018, Läänemeresoome tulemised, Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus (Muinasaja teadus 28).
Laua, Alīse 1984, Latviešu literārās valodas fonētika, Rīga: Zvaigzne.
Laver, John 1980, The Phonetic Description of Voice Quality, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Studies in Linguistics 31).
Lehiste, Ilse & Teras, Pire & Ernštreits, Valts & Lippus, Pärtel & Pajusalu, Karl & Tuisk, Tuuli & Viitso, Tiit-Rein 2008, Livonian Prosody, Helsinki (MSFOu 255).
Lehiste, Ilse & Teras, Pire & Pajusalu, Karl & Tuisk, Tuuli 2007, Quantity in Livonian: Preliminary Results. — LU XLIII, 29—44.
https://doi.org/10.3176/lu.2007.1.04
Levin, Harry & Schaffer, Carole A. & Snow, Catherine 1982, The Prosodic and Paralinguistic Features of Reading and Telling Stories. — Language and Speech 25(1), 43—54.
https://doi.org/10.1177/002383098202500104
Lin, Xihong & Zhang, Daowen 1999, Inference in generalized additive mixed models by using smoothing splines. — Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series B: Statistical Methodology 61 (2), 381—400.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9868.00183
Lindström, Liina & Lippus, Pärtel & Tuisk, Tuuli 2019, The online database of the University of Tartu Archives of Estonian Dialects and Kindred Languages and the Corpus of Estonian Dialects. — Plurilingual Finnic. Change of Finnic languages in a multilinguistic environment, Helsinki (Uralica Helsingiensia 14), 327—350.
https://doi.org/10.33341/uh.85040
Morén, Bruce 2005a, Danish Stød and Eastern Norwegian Pitch Accent: The Myth of Lexical Tones. Presented at 13th Manchester Phonology Meeting (MFM13), Manchester, England.
Morén, Bruce 2005b, Danish Stød and Eastern Norwegian Pitch Accent: Prosody, Morphology and Non-tonal Lexical Specification. Presented at 11. møte om norsk språk — 11MONS, Bergen, Norway.
Pajupuu, Hille & Viitso, Tiit-Rein, 1986, Livonian polyphthongs. — Estonian Papers in Phonetics 1984—1985, Tallinn, 96—130.
Penttilä, Aarni & Posti, Lauri 1941, Über die steigende und sog. Stossintonation im Livischen. — FUF XXVII, 235—272.
Posti, Lauri 1936, Liivin kielen intonaatioista. — Vir., 314—326, 384.
Posti, Lauri 1937a, Lisää liivin intonaatioista. — Vir., 189—200, 263.
Posti, Lauri 1937b, Vieläkin liivin intonaatioista. — Vir., 448—451.
Posti, Lauri 1942, Grundzüge der livischen Lautgeschichte, Helsinki (MSFOu 85).
Puggaard-Rode, Rasmus 2024, praatpicture. A library for making flexible Praat Picture-style figures in R. — Proceedings of the 13th International Seminar on Speech Production (ISSP 2024), Autrans, 145—148.
https://doi.org/10.21437/issp.2024-34
Riad, Tomas 2000, The origin of Danish stød. — Analogy, Levelling, Markedness. Principles of Change in Phonology and Morphology, Berlin—New York: Mouton de Gruyter (Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs [TiLSM] 127), 261—300.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110808933.261
van Rij, Jacolien & Wieling, Martijn & Baayen, Harald R. & van Rijn, Hedderik 2022, itsadug. Version 2.4.1. Interpreting Time Series and Autocorrelated Data Using GAMMs.
https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/itsadug/itsadug.pdf
Rudzīte, Marta 1994, Latviešu un lībiešu valodas savstarpējā ietekme. — Lībieši. Rakstu krājums, Rīga: Zinātne, 288—319.
Rudzīte, Marta 1996, Latviešu un lībiešu valodas kontaktu atspulgi. — Baltu filoloģija VI. Rakstu krājums, Rīga: Latvijas Universitāte, 3—7.
Shriberg, Elizabeth 2005, Spontaneous Speech: How People Really Talk, and Why Engineers Should Care. — Proceedings of the 9th European Conference on Speech Communication and Technology 2005, Lisboa, 1781—1784.
https://doi.org/10.21437/Interspeech.2005-3
de Sivers, Fanny 1965, Le coup de glotte en letton et en live. — Ceļi XII, 51—56.
Stolz, Thomas 1991, Sprachbund im Baltikum? Estnisch und Lettisch im Zentrum einer sprachlichen Konvergenzlandschaft, Bochum: Brockmeyer (Bochum-Essener Beiträge zur Sprachwandelforschung XIII).
Stuart-Smith, Jane, & Timmins, Claire & Tweedie, Fiona 2007, ’Talkin’ Jockney’? Variation and change in Glaswegian accent. — Journal of Sociolinguistics 11 (2), 221—260.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9841.2007.00319.x
Suhonen, Seppo 1982, Über die Quantität der livischen Vokale. — Voces amicorum Sovijärvi. In Honorem Antti Sovijärvi septuagesimum annum agentis die XXII mensis aprilis anno MCMLXXXII, Helsinki (MSFOu 181), 295—306.
Teras, Pire & Tuisk, Tuuli 2009, The characteristics of stød in Livonian. — Proceedings of the Xth Conference, Helsinki 2008, Frankfurt: Peter Lang Verlag, 217—226.
Terken, Jacques & Hermes, Dik 2000, The Perception of Prosodic Prominence. — Prosody: Theory and Experiment. Studies Presented to Gösta Bruce, Dordrecht: Springer (Text, Speech and Language Technology 14), 89—127.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9413-4_5
Thomsen, Vilhelm 1890, Beröringer mellem de finske og de baltiske (litauisk-lettiske) Sprog, København.
Tuisk, Tuuli 2012, Tonal and Temporal Characteristics of Disyllabic Words in Spontaneous Livonian. — LU XLVIII, 1—11.
https://doi.org/10.3176/lu.2012.1.01
Tuisk, Tuuli 2014, Survey of research on Livonian prosody. — ESUKA 5 (1), 261—292.
https://doi.org/10.12697/jeful.2014.5.1.15
Tuisk, Tuuli 2015, Acoustics of stød in Livonian. — Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Glasgow: University of Glasgow.
https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/icphs-proceedings/ICPhS2015/Papers/ICPHS0356.pdf
Tuisk, Tuuli & Pajusalu, Karl 2022, A century of Livonian studies at the University of Tartu. — ESUKA 13 (1), 307—333.
https://doi.org/10.12697/jeful.2022.13.1.12
Tuisk, Tuuli & Pharao, Nicolai 2024, Time-series f0 analysis of contrastive tones: the case of Livonian natural speech. Conference paper accepted for the Speech Prosody 2024 conference in Leiden.
Tuisk, Tuuli & Teras, Pire 2009, The Role of Duration Ratios and Fundamental Frequency in Spontaneous Livonian. — LU XLV, 241—252.
Vihman, Marilyn May 1971, Livonian Phonology, with an Appendix on Stød in Danish and Livonian. Dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley.
Viitso, Tiit-Rein 1999, Keskliivi. — Õdagumeresoomõ veeremaaq. Läänemeresoome perifeeriad, Võro (Võro Instituudi Toimõtiseq 6), 158—169.
Wagner, Petra & Origlia, Antonio & Avesani, Cinzia & Christodoulides, George & Cutugno, Francesco et al. 2015, Different part of the same elephant: A roadmap to disentangle and connect different perspectives on prosodic prominence. — Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Glasgow: University of Glasgow.
https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/icphs-proceedings/ICPhS2015/Papers/ICPHS0202.pdf
Wälchli, Bernhard 2011, The Circum-Baltic languages. — The Languages and Linguistics of Europe. A Comprehensive Guide, Berlin—Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 325—340.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110220261.325
Wiik, Kalevi 1989, Liivin katko, Turku: Turun Yliopisto.
Winkler, Eberhard 1999, Katkeintonatsiooni tekkimisest läänemeresoome keeltes. — Õdagumeresoomõ veeremaaq. Läänemeresoome perifeeriad, Võro (Võro Instituudi Toimõtiseq 6), 201—206.
Winkler, Eberhard 2000, Zum Stoßton im Ostseefinnischen. — Aspekte baltischer Forschung, Essen (Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald. Schriften des Instituts für Baltistik 1), 344—363.
Wood, Simon N. 2011, Fast stable restricted maximum likelihood and marginal likelihood estimation of semiparametric generalized linear models. — Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series B: Statistical Methodology 73 (1), 3—36.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9868.2010.00749.x
