ESTONIAN ACADEMY
PUBLISHERS
eesti teaduste
akadeemia kirjastus
PUBLISHED
SINCE 1997
 
TRAMES cover
TRAMES. A Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences
ISSN 1736-7514 (Electronic)
ISSN 1406-0922 (Print)
Impact Factor (2022): 0.2
DIFFERENT WAYS, SAME OUTCOME? LIBERAL COMMUNICATION POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC BROADCASTING; pp. 74–101
PDF | DOI: 10.3176/tr.2011.1.04

Author
Andres Jõesaar
Abstract
The European Union declares that for democracy and pluralism in member states a strong and independent public service broadcasting (PSB) is needed. Patterns chosen by each country and available time for development vary a lot. Despite the wide variety, the universal intersection and similar characteristics between countries and country groups can be found. At the time of increasing market pressure, securing quality, diversity and pluralism of available media content needed for democratic societies, is a task of communication policy. Analysis of the communication policy from political and economic aspects is a helpful tool for shaping the regulation of public service broadcasting in the digital era. The current article looks into overall relations between a country’s economic standard, PSB financing levels, historical background and audience market share trends of European public service broadcasters. More detailed focus is on the Baltic countries’ PSB financing and performance developments. The case study will open up a background where major political and economic factors affected the development of TV-broadcasting in Estonia during 1994–2010, as well as the modern role of Estonian Public Broadcasting.
References

Blumler, Jay G. and Michael Gurevitch (1995) The crisis of public communication. London and New York: Routledge.
doi:10.4324/9780203181775

Buchen, Clemens (2007) “Estonia and Slovenia as antipodes”. In Varieties of capitalism in post communist countries, 65–89. David Lane and Martin Myant, eds. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Charles, Alec (2009) “New media, new Europe: Estonia’s e-mediated state”. In Media in the enlarged Europe: politics, policy and industry, 207–221. Alec Charles, ed. Bristol and Chicago: Intellect Books.

Croteau, David and William Hoynes (2001) The business of media: corporate media and the public interest. Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press.

Curran, James (1997) “Rethinking the media as a public sphere”. In The political economy of the media. Vol. 2. Communication and the common good, 120–150.Peter Golding and Graham Murdock, eds. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

Damijan, Joze and Mark Knell (2005) “How important is trade and foreign ownership in closing technology gap? Evidence from Estonia and Slovenia”. Review of World Economics (Wel­twitrtshaftliches Archiv) 141, 271–295.
doi:10.1007/s10290-005-0028-6

Doyle, Gillian (2002) Media ownership: the economics and politics of convergence and con­centration in UK and European media. London: Sage.

Fengler, Susanne and Stephan Ruß-Mohl (2008) “Journalists and the information-attention markets: towards an economic theory of journalism”. Journalism 9, 6, 667–690.
doi:10.1177/1464884908096240

Garnham, Nicholas (1997) “Contribution to a political economy of mass communication”. In The Political Economy of the Media. Vol. 1. Communication and Capitalism, 51–86. Peter Golding and Graham Murdock, eds.Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

Gitlin, Todd (1998) “Public Spheres or Public Sphericules?”. In Media, Ritual and Identity, 168–75. Tamar Liebes and James Curran, eds. New York: Routledge,

Hall, Peter A. and David Soskice, eds. (2001) Varieties of capitalism: the institutional foundations of comparative advantage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hallin, Daniel C. and Paolo Mancini (2004) Comparing media systems: three models of media and politics. (Communication, Society and Politics). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
doi:10.1017/CBO9780511790867

Hallin, Daniel C. (2008) “Neoliberalism, social movements and change in media systems in the late twentieth century”. In The media and social theory, 43–58. David Hesmondhalgh and Jason Toynbee, eds. New York: Routledge.

Hamilton, James T. (2004) All the news that’s fit to sell: how the market transforms information into news. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Harcourt, Alison (2003) “The Regulation of Media Markets in EU First-Wave Accession States in Central and Eastern Europe”. European Law Journal 9, 3, 316–340.
doi:10.1111/1468-0386.00180

Harcourt, Alison (2005) The European Union and the regulation of media markets. Manchester and New York. Manchester University Press.

Holmes, Kim, Edwin J. Feulner, and Anastasia Mary O’Grady (2008) 2008 index of economic freedom. Washington: The Heritage Foundation and New York: Dow Jones and Company.

Hoskins, Colin, Stuart McFadyen, and Adam Finn (2004) Media economics: applying economics to new and traditional media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication.

Isanovič, Adla and Miklós Sükösd (2008) “Uncertain future: public service television and the digital age in five South-East European countries”. In Public service television in the digital age.
7–39. Miklós Sükösd and Adla Isanović, eds. Sarajevo: Mediacentar.

Jakubowicz, Karol (2003) “A square peg in a round hole: the European Union’s policy on public service broadcasting”. Journal of Media Practice 4, 3, 155–176.
doi:10.1386/jmpr.4.3.155/0

Jakubowicz, Karol (2004a) “Ideas in our heads: introduction of PSB as part of media system change in central and eastern Europe”. European Journal of Communication 19, 53–74.
doi:10.1177/0267323104040694

Jakubowicz, Karol (2004b) “Public service broadcasting in enlarging Europe: serving the cultural communities.” In The key role of Public service broadcasting in European society in the 21st century, 98-104. David Ward, ed. Centre for Media Policy and Development.

Jakubowicz, Karol (2007a) Rude awakening. social and media change in Central and Eastern Europe. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

Jakubowicz, Karol (2007b) “The Eastern European/post communist media model countries”. In European Media Governance, 303–314. George Terzis, ed. Bristol: Intellect.

Jakubowicz, Karol (2008a) “Finding the right place on the map: Prospects for Public Service Broadcasting in Post-Communist Countries.” In Finding the Right Place on the Map. Central and Eastern European Media Change in a Global Perspective, 101–124. Karol Jakubowicz and Miklós Sükösd, eds. Bristol: Intellect.

Jakubowicz, Karol (2008b) “Riviera on the Baltic? Public service broadcasting in post-communist countries”. In Comparing media systems in central Europe, 41–55. Bogusława Dobek-Ost­rowska and Michał Głowacki, eds. Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego.

Jakubowicz, Karol (2009) “The highways and byways of ‘Europeanzation’ in the media.” Central European Journal of Communication 2, 1, 5–11.

Jõesaar, Andres (2005) Avalik-õigusliku ringhäälingu legitimatsioon: Eesti kogemus rahvusvahelises kontekstis. [The legitimation of the public broadcasting. Estonian experience in the inter­national context.] Tartu: Tartu Ülikool.

Jõesaar, Andres (2009) “Formation of Estonian broadcasting landscape 1994–2007: experience of the transition state”. Central European Journal of Communication 2, 1, 43–62.

Kalmus, Veronika, Marju Lauristin, and Pille Pruulmann-Vengerfeldt, eds. (2004) Eesti Elavik 21. sajandi algul: ülevaade uurimuse Mina.Maailm.Meedia tulemustest. [Survey on the study: Me, world, and media in Estonia.] Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus.

Karppinen, Kari (2007) “Making a difference to media pluralism: a critique of the pluralistic con­sensus in European media policy.” In Reclaiming the media: communication rights and democratic media roles. 9–30. Bart Cammaerts and Nico Carpentier, eds. Bristol: Intellect Books.

Knell, Mark and Martin Srholec (2007) “Diverging pathways in central and eastern Europe”. In Varieties of capitalism in post-communist countries, 40–62. David Lane and Martin Myant, eds, Hampshire and New York: Palgrave MacMillan.

Lange, Andre (2008) “Comparative analysis of the financing of the public audiovisual sector in the European Union Conference ‘Public media services at the digital age’”. http:// www.dgmic.culture.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Andre_Lange_Financement_secteur_public_EN.pdf.

Lauristin, Marju, ed. (2009) Eesti inimarengu aruanne 2008. [Estonian human development report 2008.] Tallinn: Eesti Koostöö Kogu.

Linz, Juan J. and Alfred Stepan (1996) Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation. Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Lowe, Gregory Ferrell and Peter Jauert, eds. (2005) Cultural dilemmas in public service broad­casting: RIPE@2005. Göteborg: Nordicom.

McQuail, Denis (2010) McQuail’s mass communication theory. London and Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.

Murdock, Graham and Peter Golding (1989) “Information poverty and political inequality: citizen­ship in the age of privatized communications”. Journal of Communications 39, 3, 180–195.
doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1989.tb01051.x

Ognyanova, Nelly (200) “Bulgarian media policy and law: how much Europeanization”. Central European Journal of Communication 2, 1, 27–41.

Pečilius, Žygintas (2010) “Mission (im)possible: the case of Lithuanian public service broadcasting”. Central European Journal of Communication 3, 1, 81–94.

Peruško, Zrinjka and Helena Popovič (2008) “From transmission to the public good: Media policy for the digital age in Croatia”. In Public service television in the digital age. 141–190. Miklós Sükösd and Adla Isanović, eds. Sarajevo: Mediacentar.

Picard, Robert G. (2002a) “Research note: assessing audience performance of public service broad­casters”. European Journal of Communication 17, 2, 227–235.
doi:10.1177/0267323102017002696

Picard, Robert G. (2002b) The economics and financing of media companies. New York: Fordham University Press.

Puppis, Manuel (2009) “Media regulation in small states”. International Communication Gazette 71, 7, 7–17.
doi:10.1177/1748048508097927

Richter, Andrei (2009) “Influence of the Council of Europe and other European institutions on the media law system in post-Soviet states”. Central European Journal of Communication 2, 1, 133–147.

Shein, Hagi (2005) Suur teleraamat. 50 aastat televisiooni Eestis 1995–2005. [Television in Estonia 1995–2005.] Tallinn: TEA kirjastus.

Smythe, Dallas W. (1977) “Communications: blindspot of Western Marxism”. Canadian Journal of Political and Social Theory 1, 120–127.

Svendsen, Erik Nordahl (2002) “The regulation of public service broadcasting: an EPRA inquiry”. http://www.epra.org/content/english/press/papers/EPRA200207%20
(rev%20version).doc

Syvertsen, Trine (2003) “Challenges to public television in the era of convergence and commercialization”. Television and New Media 4, 2, 155–176.
doi:10.1177/1527476402250683

Van Cuilenburg, Jan (1998) “Diversity revisited: towards a critical rational model of media diversity”. In Media in question. K. Brants, J. Hermes, and L. Van Zoonen, eds. London: Sage.

Van Cuilenburg, Jan and Denis McQuail (2003) “Media policy paradigm shifts: towards a new communications policy paradigm”. European Journal of Communication 18, 2, 181–207.
doi:10.1177/0267323103018002002

Wyka, Angelika W. (2009) “On the way to dumbing down… the case of central Europe”. Central European Journal of Communication 2, 1, 133–147.

Sources

Audiovisual Media Services Directive. http://ec.europa.eu/avpolicy/reg/tvwf/index_en.htm

Bank of Estonia (2008) Annual indicators of Estonian economy. http://www.eestipank.info/ dynamic/itp2/itp_report_2a.jsp?reference=
503&className=EPSTAT2&lang=en

Directive 97/36/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 June 1997 amending Council Directive 89/552/EEC on the coordination of certain provisions laid down by law, regulation or administrative action in Member States concerning the pursuit of television broadcasting activities. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX: 31997L0036:EN:HTML

Directive 2007/65/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2007 amending Council Directive 89/552/EEC on the coordination of certain provisions laid down by law, regulation or administrative action in Member States concerning the pursuit of television broadcasting activities. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri= OJ:L:2007:332:0027:01:EN:HTML

Estonian Broadcasting Act (2001) http://www.kul.ee/webeditor/files/Broadcasting_Act.doc

Estonian Public Broadcasting Act (2007) http://www.legaltext.ee/en/andmebaas/tekst.asp?loc= text&dok=XX10025&keel=en&pg=1&ptyyp=RT&tyyp=X&query=Estonian+National+Broadcasting+Act

European Commission (2009) “Television without Frontiers”: Commission warns Estonia to apply the EU's TV advertising rules. IP/09/424 dated 19/03/2009 http://europa.eu/rapid/ pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/09/424&format=HTML&aged=0&language=
EN&guiLanguage=en

Freedom House (2009) Freedom of Press Index. http://www.freedomhouse.org/template. cfm?page=470

International Monetary Fund World Economic Outlook Database April 2010. http://www.imf.org/ external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/index.aspx

Kanal2 AS (2000-2009). Majandusaasta aruanne. [Annual reports]. https://www.kreddidiinfo.ee

McKinsey and Company (2004) Review of public service broadcasting around the world. London: McKinsey.

Mechanisms for Setting Broadcasting Funding Levels in OECD Countries. Research and Analysis Project Report (2005) School of Communication. UNITEC. New Zealand. http://www.mch.govt.nz/publications/broadcast-funding/MCH-OECD-Funding-Report.pdf.

Public Service Media: Money for Content. IRIS plus 2010-4. Strasbourg: European Audiovisual Observatory.

Ringhäälinguseadus (1994). [Broadcasting Act]. https://www.riigiteataja.ee/ert/act.jsp?id=28671

Ringhäälinguseaduse muutmise seadus (1997) [Amendment of Broadcasting Act]. https://www. riigiteataja.ee/ert/act.jsp?id=74425

Ringhäälinguseaduse muutmise seadus (1999) [Amendment of Broadcasting Act]. https://www. riigiteataja.ee/ert/act.jsp?id=77606

Ringhäälinguseaduse muutmise seadus (2000a) [Amendment of Broadcasting Act]. https://www. riigiteataja.ee/ert/act.jsp?id=71871

Ringhäälinguseaduse muutmise seadus (2000a) [Amendment of Broadcasting Act]. https://www. riigiteataja. ee/ert/act.jsp?id=71964&replstring=33

Ringhäälinguseaduse muutmise seadus (2002) [Amendment of Broadcasting Act]. https://www. riigiteataja.ee/ert/act.jsp?id=162838

Ringhäälinguseaduse muutmise seadus (2007) [Amendment of Broadcasting Act]. https://www. riigiteataja.ee/akt/12787649

Ringhäälinguseaduse muutmise seadus (2008) [Amendment of Broadcasting Act]. https://www. riigiteataja.ee/akt/12991113

Seadus. Riigi 1999.aasta lisaeelarve. [Amendment of Supplementary State Budget Act (1999)] http:// www.riigikogu.ee/?op=emsplain&content_type=text/html&page=
mgetdoc&itemid=991310006

The Strategic Information Service. European Broadcasting Union. http://www.ebu.ch/sis/ ebu_menu.php?/analyst2009/AnalystMain.php

TNS EMOR http://www.emor.ee

TNS Latvia (Baltic Media Facts Latvia) / TV Diaries.http://www.tns.lv

TNS Lithuania. http://www.tns.lt

TV3 AS (2000-2009) Majandusaasta aruanne. [Annual reports]. https://www.krediidiinfo.ee

Yearbook 2004 Volume 2. Household Audiovisual Equipment – Transmission – Television Audience. Economy of the radio and television industry in Europe. Strasbourg: European Audiovisual Observatory.

Yearbook 2005. Economy of the radio and television industry in Europe. Strasbourg: European Audiovisual Observatory.

Yearbook 2009 Volume 1. Television in 36 European States. European Strasbourg: Audiovisual Observatory.
Back to Issue