ESTONIAN ACADEMY
PUBLISHERS
eesti teaduste
akadeemia kirjastus
PUBLISHED
SINCE 1997
 
TRAMES cover
TRAMES. A Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences
ISSN 1736-7514 (Electronic)
ISSN 1406-0922 (Print)
Impact Factor (2022): 0.2
Research article
CLASS CAPITALISM IN A POST-LIBERATION STATE: DEMOCRATIC SOUTH AFRICA’S BLACK DIAMONDS; pp. 67–88
PDF | https//doi.org/10.3176/tr.2023.1.04

Author
Juliet Joseph
Abstract

Through its legislation fixed in its Constitution, South Africa has made great strides towards inclusion and equality for the marginalised. However, the gap between the rich and the poor has continued to widen. Elitism and privilege are as old as human existence and will continue in the future. This study will examine the political climate of class capitalism as a threat to human security. This article examines the impact of neo-liberal policy reform aimed at ensuring transformation and development, through an exploration of South Africa’s Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment (BBBEE) policies. Through its conceptual framework, intersectional theory explores hierarchy dominated by intersectional challenges that are connected to race, class, and gender and remain tied to power and privilege. Based on the findings of the study, South Africa’s post-liberation period instilled class divides that reinforced systems, processes and legacies of the past that still dominate the state and its people. Further, the study questions whether affluence and elitist politics create unequal distributions of resources, which contribute to human security threats within the region, including mass poverty, which impacts the lives of the vast majority of South Africans. There are clear winners and losers in South Africa as a result of capitalism and nationalistic discourses. It is confirmed in representations and categories across races, classes, and genders that exist in South Africa’s emerging class capitalism. In this paper, an intersectional study suggests that black African females remain highly stereotyped within hegemony, hierarchy, class, and social representations.

References

Acker, J. (2006) Class questions: feminist answers. Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield.

Adedeji, A. (2007) “Democracy and development: a complex relationship”. In K. Matlosa, J. Elkit, and B. Chiroro, eds. Challenges of conflict, democracy and development in Africa. Johannesburg: Global Print.

Aguilar, D. D. (2012) “Tracing the roots of intersectionality”. Monthly Review, 12. April. Available online at 
<https://mronline.org/2012/04/12/aguilar120412-html/>. Accessed on 14.02.2023.

Ahmad, J. (2005) Decentralization and service delivery. World Bank Publications, 3603.
https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-3603

Akanle, O., D. Kayode, and I. Abolade (2022) Sustainable development goals (SDGs) and remittances in Africa. Cogent Social Sciences 8, 1, 2037811.
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2022.2037811

Anthias, F. (2012) “Hierarchies of social location, class, and intersectionality: towards a translocational frame”. International Sociology 28, 1, 121–138.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580912463155

Anthias, F. (2013) Intersectional what? Social divisions, intersectionality and levels of analysis. Ethnicities 13, 1, 3–19.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796812463547

Archer, L. and B. Francis (2006) Understanding minority ethnic achievement: race, gender, class and ‘success’. London: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203968390

Barnard, R. and G. Farred, eds. (2004) After the thrill is gone: a decade of post-apartheid South Africa, 589–606. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Bassett, C. (2008) South Africa: revisiting capital’s ‘formative action’. Review of African Political Economy, 35, 116 (The Politics of Capital), 185–202.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03056240802193804

Basson, G. B. (2022) Poverty as a ground of unfair discrimination in post-apartheid South Africa. Master thesis. Faculty of Law at Stellenbosch University.

Benjamin, S. (2007) “The feminization of poverty in post-apartheid South Africa: a story told by the women of Bayview, Chatsworth”. Journal ofDeveloping Societies 23, 1-2, 175–206.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0169796X0602300211

Berger, M. T. and K. Guidroz, eds. (2010) The intersectional approach: transforming the academy through race, class, and gender. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

Bhorat, H., K. Lilenstein, M. Oosthuizen, and A. Thornton (2020) Structural transformation, inequality, and inclusive growth in South Africa. (WIDER Working Paper, 2020/50.) UNU-WIDER. 
https://doi.org/10.35188/UNU-WIDER/2020/807-8

Broad-based Black Economic Empowerment Commission (B-BBEE Commission) (2020) National status and trends on broad-based blackeconomic empowerment. Available online at 
<https://www.bbbeecommission.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/National-Status-and-Trends-onBroad-Based-Black-Economic-Empowerment_pdf>. Accessed on 14.03.2022.

Carastathis, A. (2014) “The concept of intersectionality in feminist theory”. Philosophy compass 9, 5, 304–314.
https://doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12129

Chagunda, C. (2019) The South African social grant system: A positive effect on poverty alleviation and unforeseen socio-cultural consequences. Gender and Behaviour, 17(4), 14237–14250.

Clover, J. and S. Eriksen (2009) “The effects of land tenure change on sustainability: human security and environmental change in southern African savannahs”. Environmental Science & Policy 12, 1, 53–70.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2008.10.012

Cole, M., eds. (2022) Education, equality and human rights: issues of gender, ‘race’, sexuality, disability and social class. 5th ed. London: Taylor & Francis.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003177142

Collins, P. H. (2002) Black feminist thought: knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. London: Routledge.

Collins, P. H. (2010) “Intersecting inequalities”. In: A. Giddens and P. W. Sutton, eds. Sociology: introductory readings, ch. 26. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Polity.

Cornwall, A., S. Correa, and S. Jolly (2008) Development with a body: sexualities, development and human rights. London: Zed Books.
https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350219588

Corus, C. and B. Saatcioglu (2015) “An intersectionality framework for transformative services research”. The Service Industries Journal 35, 7-8, 415–429.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2015.1015522

Crenshaw, K. (1989) “Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: a black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics”. The University of Chicago Legal Forum 1, 139–167.

Davis, K. (2008) “Intersectionality as buzzword”. Feminist theory 9, 1, 67–85.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1464700108086364

Davis, K. (2014) “Intersectionality as critical methodology”. In Writing Academic Texts Differently, 17–29. London: Routledge.

Department of Labour (2015) Commission for employment equity annual report 2014/15. Department of labour.

Department of Trade and Industry (2011) Towards an enabling environment for women economic empowerment in South Africa: status quo report. Pretoria: Department of Trade and Industry.

Devey, R. and V. Møller (2002) “Closing the gap between rich and poor in South Africa”. In Rich and poor, 105–122. Dordrecht: Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0257-8_8

Dill, B. T. and R. E. Zambrana (2020) “Critical thinking about inequality: an emerging lens”. In Feminist theory reader, 108–116. London: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003001201-14

Else-Quest, N. M. and J. S. Hyde (2016) “Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research. I: Theoretical and epistemological issues”. Psychology of Women Quarterly 40, 2, 155–170.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316629797

Freund, B. (2007) South Africa: The end of apartheid & the emergence of the ‘BEE Elite’. Review of African Political Economy, 34(114), 661–678.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03056240701819533

Gaventa, J. (1982) Power and powerlessness: quiescence and rebellion in an Appalachian valley. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press.

Gouws, A. (2017) “Feminist intersectionality and the matrix of domination in South Africa”. Agenda 31, 1, 19–27.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10130950.2017.1338871

Govender, P., N. Kambaran, N. Patchett, A. Ruddle, G. Torr, and N. Van Zyl (2007) “Poverty and inequality in South Africa and the world”. SouthAfrican Actuarial Journal 7, 1, 117–160.
https://doi.org/10.4314/saaj.v7i1.24511

Habiyaremye, A. (2022) “Racial capitalism, ruling elite business entanglement and the impasse of black economic empowerment policy in South Africa”. African Journal of Business Ethics 16, 1, 25–41.
https://doi.org/10.15249/16-1-298

Hall, S. (1997) “Culture and power”. Radical Philosophy 86, 27, 24–41. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/004839319702700102

Harnois, C. E. (2010) “Race, gender, and the Black women’s standpoint”. Sociological Forum 25, 1, 68–85. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1573-7861.2009.01157.x

Hines, S. (2010) “Sexing gender; gendering sex: towards an intersectional analysis of transgender”. In Theorizing intersectionality and sexuality, 140–162. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230304093_8

Iheduru, O. C. (2004) “Black economic power and nation-building in post-apartheid South Africa”. The Journal of Modern African Studies 42, 1, 1–30.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X03004452

Kehler, J. (2001) Women and poverty: the South African experience. Journal of international women’s studies3(1), 41–53.

Koelble, T. A. (2022) Poverty, corruption and democracy: the role of ‘political society’ in post-colonial South Africa. Globalizations, 1–13.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2022.2035054

Loriaux, S. (2008) “Global equality of opportunity: a proposal”. Journal of International Relations and Development 11, 1, 1–28.
https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jird.1800145

Lutz, H., M. T. H. Vivar, and L. Supik, eds. (2016) Framing intersectionality: debates on a multi-faceted concept in gender studies. London: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315582924

Lykke, N. (2010) Feminist studies: a guide to intersectional theory, methodology and writing. London: Routledge.

Makgetla, N. S. (2004) “The post-apartheid economy”. Review of African Political Economy 31, 100, 263–281.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0305624042000262284

Manuel, T. (2007) “Envisioning the possibilities for a good life: exploring the public policy implications of intersectionality theory”. Journal ofWomen, Politics & Policy 28, 3-4, 173–203.
https://doi.org/10.1300/J501v28n03_08

Marais, H. (2001) South Africa: limits to change: the political economy of transition. London: Zed Books.

Marais, H. (2011) South Africa pushed to the limit: the political economy of change. London: Zed Books.

Mathur-Helm, B. (2005) “Equal opportunity and affirmative action for South African women: a benefit or barrier?”. Women in ManagementReview 20, 1, 56–71.
https://doi.org/10.1108/09649420510579577

Mbeki, M. (2005) Under development in sub-Saharan Africa: the role of the private sector and political elites. (Foreign Policy Briefing, 85.) Cato Institute.

Mbeki, M. (2009) Architects of poverty. Johannesburg: Picador Africa. 

McDowell, L. (1991) “The baby and the bath water: diversity, deconstruction and feminist theory in geography”. Geoforum 22, 2, 123–133.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7185(91)90002-8

Milani, T. M. and J. E. Richardson (2022) “Discourses of collective remembering: contestation, politics, affect”. Critical Discourse Studies
https://doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2022.2090979

Mogale, T. M. (2003) “Developmental local government and decentralised service delivery in the democratic South Africa”. In G. Mhone and O. Edigheji, eds. Governance in new South Africa: the challenges of globalisation, 215–243. Lansdowne: University of Cape Town Press.

Muiu, M. W. (2008) The pitfalls of liberal democracy and late nationalism in South Africa. Cham: Springer.

Musabayana, G. T. and E. Mutambara (2022) “The Implementation of the Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment (B-BBEE) policy in South Africa a myth or a reality – a focus on SMEs”. Australasian Accounting, Business and Finance Journal 16, 1, 1–13.
https://doi.org/10.14453/aabfj.v16i1.5

Nattrass, N. and J. Seekings (2001) “Democracy and distribution in highly unequal economies: the case of South Africa”. The Journal of ModernAfrican Studies 39, 3, 471–498.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X01003688

Okin, S. (1994) “Gender inequality and cultural differences”. Political Theory 22, 1, 5–24. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/0090591794022001002

Patel, L. and L. Graham (2012) “How broad-based is broad-based black economic empowerment?”. Development Southern Africa 29, 2, 193–207.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2012.675692

Phillips, A. (2010) Gender and culture. Cambridge: Polity.

Reddy, D. T. (2015) South Africa, settler colonialism and the failures of liberal democracy. London: Zed Books.
https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350222694

Rhode, D. L. (2018) Feminist critical theories [1990]. In Feminist legal theory, 333–350. London: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429500480-19

Risman, B. J. (2018) “Gender as a social structure”. In Handbook of the sociology of gender, 19–43. Cham: Springer. 
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76333-0_2

Rodrigues, J. N. and D. C. R. Cabete (2022) “Social justice and human rights in the 22nd century – equity principle”. In: Globalisation, ideologyand social justice discourses, 55–81. Cham: Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92774-5_4

Satgar, V. (2012) “Beyond Marikana: the post-apartheid South African state”. Afrika Spectrum 47, 2, 33.
https://doi.org/10.1177/000203971204702-303

Seekings, J. and N. Nattrass (2008) Class, race, and inequality in South Africa. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.

Segalo, P. (2015) Gender, social cohesion and everyday struggles in South Africa. Psychology in Society 49, 70–82.
https://doi.org/10.17159/2309-8708/2015/n49a6

Sen, G. (2019) “Gender equality and women’s empowerment: feminist mobilization for the SDGs”. Global Policy 10, 28–38.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.12593

Sen, G., P. Östlin, and A. George (2007) Unequal, unfair, ineffective and inefficient gender inequity in health: why it exists and how we can change it. Report available online at 
<https://eurohealth.ie/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Unequal-Unfair-Ineffective-and-Inefficient-Gender-Inequity-in-Health.pdf>. Accessed on 14.02.2023.

Shaw, M., D. Dorling, and G. D. Smith (1999) “Poverty, social exclusion, and minorities”. Social determinants of health 2, 196–223.

Southall, R. (2007) “Ten propositions about black economic empowerment in South Africa”. Review of African Political Economy 34, 111, 67–84.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03056240701340365

Southall, R. (2016) The new black middle class in South Africa. James Currey.

Stacey, J. (1988) “Can there be a feminist ethnography?”. Women’s Study International Forum 11, 1, 21–27.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-5395(88)90004-0

Statistics South Africa (2020a) General household survey. Available online at 
<https://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0318/P03182019.pdf>. Accessed on 02.03.2021.

Statistics South Africa (2020b) Quarterly labour force survey, quarter1:2020. Available online at 
<http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0211/P02111stQuarter2020.pdf>. Accessed on 02.03.2021.

Tangri, R. and R. Southall (2008) “The politics of black economic empowerment in South Africa”. Journal of Southern African Studies 34, 3, 699–716.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070802295856

Tshishonga, N. (2019) The legacy of apartheid on democracy and citizenship in post-apartheid South Africa: An inclusionary and exclusionary binary?. African Journal of Development Studies, 9(1), 167–191.
https://doi.org/10.31920/2075-6534/2019/9n1a8

The Commission for Gender Equality 20 – Year Review Report, 2017. 

Tomlinson, M. (2003) “Lifestyle and social class”. European Sociological Review 19, 1, 97–111.
https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/19.1.97

Verba, S (2003) “Would the dream of political equality turn out to be a nightmare?”. Perspectives on Politics 1, 4, 663–679.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592703000458

Wilson, W. J. (2012) The declining significance of race: blacks and changing American institutions. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226032993.001.0001

Yuval-Davis, N. (2006) “Intersectionality and feminist politics”. European Journal of Women’s Studies 13, 3, 193–209.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1350506806065752

Back to Issue