Oil shale as an alternative to oil is considered a major possible source of energy in Jordan which has an estimated 50 billion tons of geological proven reserves that are widely distributed all over the country. Many methods have been used for extracting shale oil from oil shale. This investigation suggests the application of a novel technique, namely microwave-assisted extraction. Several solvents were tested for extractive capacity at different temperatures (50 to 140 °C) by the microwave irradiation of the investigated oil shale. The extraction results showed that all the solvents except hexane followed a sigmoid behaviour. Methanol exhibited the highest extractive capacity of about 23% of shale oil. Several particle sizes in the range of 94–910 µm were examined and the results indicated that shale oil extraction is not diffusion controlled. The dynamic effect of extraction was also considered and found to have a very little effect after 10 minutes of irradiation.
1. Hamarneh, Y. Oil Shale Resources Development in Jordan. Natural Resources Authority, Amman, Jordan, 1998. Revised and updated by J. Alali and S. Sawaqed, 2006.
2. Arro, H., Prikk, A., Pihu, T. Calculation of qualitative and quantitative composition of Estonian oil shale and its combustion products. Part 1. Calculation on the basis of heating value. Fuel, 2003, 82(18), 2179–2195.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0016-2361(03)00125-X
3. Altun, N. E., Hicyilmaz, C., Hwang, J.-Y., Suat Bağci, A., Kök, M. V. Oil shales in the world and Turkey; reserves, current situation and future prospects: a review. Oil Shale, 2006, 23(3), 211–227.
4. Bussell, I. S (Ed.). Oil Shale Developments, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York, 2009.
5. Nazzal, J. M. Influence of heating rate on the pyrolysis of Jordan oil shale. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol., 2002, 62(2), 225–238.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(01)00119-X
6. Han, X. X., Jiang, X. M., Cui, Z. G. Studies of the effect of retorting factors on the yield of shale oil for a new comprehensive utilization technology of oil shale. Appl. Energ., 2009, 86(11), 2381–2385.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.03.014
7. Al-Harahsheh, A., Al-Ayed, O., Al-Harahsheh, M., Abu-El-Halawah, R. Heating rate effect on fractional yield and composition of oil retorted from El-lajjun oil shale. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol., 2010, 89(2), 239–243.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2010.08.009
8. Wang, Z., Deng, S., Gu, Q., Zhang, Y., Cui, X., Wang, H. Pyrolysis kinetic study of Huadian oil shale, spent oil shale and their mixtures by thermogravimetric analysis. Fuel Process. Technol., 2013, 110, 103–108.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2012.12.001
9. Johannes, I., Tiikma, L., Luik, H. Synergy in co-pyrolysis of oil shale and pine sawdust in autoclaves. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrol., 2013, 104, 341–352.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2013.06.015
10. Wang, S., Jiang, X., Han, X., Tong, J. Effect of retorting temperature on product yield and characteristics of non-condensable gases and shale oil obtained by retorting Huadian oil shales. Fuel Process. Technol., 2014, 121, 9–15.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2014.01.005
11. Torrente, M. C., Galan, M. A. Extraction of kerogen from oil shale (Puertollano, Spain) with supercritical toluene and methanol mixtures. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 2011, 50(3), 1730–1738.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ie1004509
12. Deng, S., Wang, Z., Gu, Q., Meng, F., Li, J., Wang, H. Extracting hydrocarbons from Huadian oil shale by sub-critical water. Fuel Process. Technol., 2011, 92(5), 1062–1067.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.01.001
13. Abourriche, A., Oumam, M., Hannache, H., Adil, A., Pailler, R., Naslain, R., Birot, M., Pillot, J.-P. Effect of toluene proportion on the yield and composition of oils obtained by supercritical extraction of Moroccan oil shale. J. Supercrit. Fluid., 2009, 51(1), 24–28.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2009.07.003
14. Hruljova, J., Savest, N., Oja, V., Suuberg, E. M. Kukersite oil shale kerogen solvent swelling in binary mixtures. Fuel, 2013, 105, 77–82.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.06.085
15. Abourriche, A. K., Oumam, M., Hannache, H., Birot, M., Abouliatim, Y., Benhammou, A., El Hafiane, Y., Abourriche, A. M., Pailler, R., Naslain, R. Comparative studies on the yield and quality of oils extracted from Moroccan oil shale. J. Supercrit. Fluid., 2013, 84, 98–104.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2013.09.018
16. Wei, L., Mastalerz, M., Schimmelmann, A., Chen, Y. Influence of Soxhlet-extractable bitumen and oil on porosity in thermally maturing organic-rich shales. Int. J. Coal Geol., 2014, 132, 38–50.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2014.08.003
17. Haddadin, M. S. Y., Abou Arqoub, A. A., Abu Reesh, I., Haddadin, J. Kinetics of hydrocarbon extraction from oil shale using biosurfactant producing bacteria. Energ. Convers. Manage., 2009, 50(4), 983–990.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2008.12.015
18. El harfi, K., Mokhlisse, A., Chanâa, M. B., Outzourhit, A. Pyrolysis of the Moroccan (Tarfaya) oil shales under microwave irradiation. Fuel, 2000, 79(7), 733–742.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0016-2361(99)00209-4
19. Bradhurst, D. H., Worner, H. K. Evaluation of oil produced from the microwave retorting of Australian shales. Fuel, 1996, 75(3), 285–288.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0016-2361(95)00232-4
20. Mutyala, S., Fairbridge, C., Jocelyn Paré, J. R., Bélanger, J. M. R., Ng, S., Hawkins, R. Microwave applications to oil sands and petroleum: A review. Fuel Process. Technol., 2010, 91(2), 127–135.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2009.09.009
21. Dumbaugh, W. H., Lawless, W. N., Malmendier, J. W., Wexell, D. R. Extraction of oil from oil shale and tar sand. Canadian Patent, CA 1,108,081, Sept. 1, 1981.
22. De la Hoz, A., Díaz-Ortiz, Á., Moreno, A. Microwaves in organic synthesis: Thermal and non-thermal microwave effects. Chem. Soc. Rev., 2005, 34, 164–178.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/b411438h
23. Lidström, P., Tierney, J., Wathey, B., Westman, J. Microwave assisted organic synthesis – a review. Tetrahedron, 2001, 57(45), 9225–9283.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0040-4020(01)00906-1
24. Balint, V., Pinter, A., Mika, G. Process for the recovery of shale oil, heavy oil, kerogen or tar from their natural sources. U.S. Patent 4,419,214, Dec. 6, 1983.
25. Raytheon Company. Oil Extraction from Shale Reserves. Raytheon Technology Today. 2009, 1, 10.
26. Al-Harahsheh, A., Al-Otoom, A. Y., Shawabkeh, R. A. Sulfur distribution in the oil fraction obtained by thermal cracking of Jordanian El-Lajjun oil shale. Energy, 2005, 30(15), 2784–2795.
27. Savest, N., Hruljova, J., Oja, V. Characterization of thermally pretreated kukersite oil shale using the solvent-swelling technique. Energ. Fuel., 2009, 23(12), 5972–5977.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ef900667t
28. Thompson, W. R., Prien, C. H. Thermal extraction and solution of oil shale kerogen. Ind. Eng. Chem., 1958, 50, 359–364.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ie50579a037
29. Moran, M. J., Shapiro, H. N. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 5th ed. John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2006.
30. Mo, Y., Dang, L., Wei, H. Solubility of α-form and β-form of L-glutamic acid in different aqueous solvent mixtures. Fluid Phase Equilibr., 2011, 300(1–2), 105–109.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fluid.2010.10.020
