More than a century ago, a small human sculpture made of elk antler was recovered as a stray find from the bottom of River Pärnu in south-west Estonia. It was originally widely used and interpreted in connection with Neolithic figurines from south-east Europe and considered a Mother-God. Later on the figurine was almost forgotten and mentioned only randomly in association with the Stone Age art of the eastern Baltic region. By now the sculpture has been dated to the Mesolithic by direct AMS-sample, thus being one of the oldest dated figurines found in the region. A new interpretation has been given that the sculpture represents a wrapped corpse.
Ailio, J. 1922. Fragen der Russischen Steinzeit. – Zeitschrift der Finnischen Altertumsgesellschaft, XXIX: 1, 1–111.
Bailey, D. 2005. Prehistoric Figurines: Representation and Corporeality in the Neolithic. Routledge.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203392454
Bliebernicht, E. G. 1924. Neue Funde aus dem Pernauflusse. Fundbericht von den j. 1920–1922. – Zeitschrift der Finnischen Altertumsgesellschaft, XXXIV: 2, 1–19.
Bronk Ramsey, C. 2013. OxCal (computer program). Version 4.2. The Manual (available at http://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/oxcal/OxCal.html).
Butrimas, A. 2000. Human figurines in Eastern-Baltic prehistoric art. – Prehistoric Art in the Baltic Region. Ed. A. Butrimas. (Vilnius Academy of Fine Art.) Vilnius, 93–105.
Childe, G. V. 1925. The Dawn of European Civilization. Paul Kegan, London.
Conneller, C. 2011. The Mesolithic. – Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Ritual and Religion. Ed. T. Insoll. Oxford University Press, 358–370.
Ebert, M. 1913. Die baltischen Provinzen Kurland, Livland, Estland 1913. – Praehistorischen Zeitschrift, V, heft 3/4, 498–559.
Edgren, T. 2006. Kolmhaara reconsidered. Some new observations concerning the Neolithic burial practice in Finland. – Back to the Origin. New Research in the Mesolithic–Neolithic Zvejnieki Cemetery and Environment, Northern Latvia. Eds L. Larsson & I. Zagorska. Almqvist & Wiksell International, Stockholm, 327–336.
Eriksson, G. & Zagorska, I. 2002. Do dogs eat like humans? Marine stable isotope signals in dog teeth from inland Zvejnieki. – Mesolithic on the Move. Papers Presented at the Sixth International Conference on the Mesolithic in Europe. Eds L. Larsson, H. Kindgren, K. Knutsson, D. Loeffler & A. Åkerlund. Oxbow Book, Oxford, 160–168.
Europaeus, A. 1930. Die relative Chronologie der steinzeitlichen Keramik in Finland I. – Acta Archaeologica, 1, 165–190.
Gimbutas, M. 1956. The Prehistory of Eastern Europe. Part I. Mesolithic, Neolithic and Copper Age Cultures in Russia and the Baltic Area. (American School of Prehistoric Research. Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Bulletin No. 20.) Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Glück, E. 1906. Über Neolithische Funde in der Pernau. – Sitzungsberichte der Altertumforschenden Gesellschaft zu Pernau. Vierter Band. Pernau, 259–318.
Glück, E. 1914. Zusammenfassende Betrachtung der in den Jahren 1911 und 1912 erworbenen neolitischen Gegenstände und die daraus gewonnenen Erkenntnisse. – Sitzungsberichte der Altertumforschenden Gesellschaft zu Pernau. Siebenter Band. Pernau, 233–272.
Gurina, N. N. 1956. = Гурина Н. Н. Оленеостровский могильник. (Материалы и исследования по археологии СССР, 47.) Академия наук СССР, Москва, Ленинград.
Gurina, N. N. 1997. = Гурина Н. Н. История культуры древнего населения Кольского полуострова. (Археологические изыскания, 32.) Российская академия наук, Сaнкт-Петербург.
Indreko, R. 1929. Huvitavad muinasleiud Pärnu jõe põhjast. – Päevaleht, 11.11.1929, 6.
Indreko, R. 1931. Skulptuur ja ornament Eesti kiviaja luuriistades. – Eesti Rahva Muuseumi Aastaraamat, VI (1930), 47–70.
Indreko, R. TÜ F 150, s 81 – Personal archive of Richard Indreko at the University of Tartu Library.
Insoll, T. 2011. Ancestor cults. – Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Ritual and Religion. Ed. T. Insoll. Oxford University Press, 1043–1058.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199232444.001.0001
Iršėnas, M. 2000. Elk figurines in the Stone Age art of the Baltic Area. – Prehistoric Art in the Baltic Region. Ed. A. Butrimas. Vilnius Academy of Fine Art, 7–29.
Iršėnas, M. 2010. Anthropomorphic and zoomorphic Stone Age art in Lithuania and its archaeological cultural context. – At the Origins of the Culture of the Balts. Dedicated to the 60th Birthday of Prof Habil. Dr. Algirdas Girininkas. (Archaeologia Baltica, 13.) Klaipėda University Press, 175–190.
Jaanits, L. 1961. Jooni kiviaja uskumustest. – Religiooni ja ateismi ajaloost Eestis. Artiklite kogumik, II. Ed. E. Jansen. Tallinn, 5–70.
Jaanits, L., Laul, S., Lõugas, V. & Tõnisson, E. 1982. Eesti esiajalugu. Eesti Raamat, Tallinn.
Jonuks, T. 2009. Eesti muinasusund. (Dissertationes archaeologiae Universitatis Tartuensis, 2.) Tartu University Press.
Jonuks, T. 2013. An antler object from the Pärnu River – an axe, a god or a decoy? – Man, His Time, Artefacts, and Places. Collection of Articles Dedicated to Richard Indreko. (MT, 19.) Tallinn, 225–246.
Jordan, P. 2003. Material Culture and Sacred Landscape. The Anthropology of the Siberian Khanty. Altamira Press.
Kashina, E. A. 2006. = Кашина Е. А. К вопросу об антропоморфных изображениях из кремня в лесной зоне Европейской России. – Тверской Археологический Сборник, 6: 1. Тверь, 406–413.
Klebs, R. 1882. Der Bernsteinschmuck der Steinzeit von der Baggerei bei Schwarzort und anderen Lokalitäten Preussens. (Beiträge zur Naturkunde Preussens.) Königsberg, 1882.
Kozłowski, S. K. 2009. Thinking Mesolithic. Short Run Press, Exeter.
Kriiska, A. & Lõugas, L. 2009. Stone age settlement sites on an environmentally sensitive coastal area along the lower reaches of the River Pärnu (south-western Estonia), as indicators of changing settlement patterns, technologies and economies. – Mesolithic Horizons. Eds S. McCartan, R. Schulting, G. Warren & P. Woodman. Oxbow Books, 167–175.
Kriiska, A., Lõugas, L., Lõhmus, M., Mannermaa, K. & Johanson, K. 2007. New AMS dates from Estonian Stone Age burial sites. – EJA, 11: 2, 83–121.
Lahelma, A. 2005. Between the worlds: rock art, landscape and shamanism in Subneolithic Finland. – Norwegian Archaeological Review, 38: 1, 29–47.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09018320510032402
Larsson, L. 2000. Expressions of art in the Mesolithic society of Scandinavia. – Prehistoric Art in the Baltic Region. Ed. A. Butrimas. Vilnius Academy of Fine Arts, 31–61.
Leppäaho, J. 1937. Pohjankurun “puujumalainen”. – Suomen Museo, XLIII, 38–42.
Lesure, R. G. 2011. Interpreting Ancient Figurines. Context, Comparison, and Prehistoric Art. Cambridge University Press.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511973376
Lobanova, N. 1995. = Лобанова Н. О двух костяных изделиях из мезолитического слоя Бесов Нос. – Вестник Карельского музея, 3, 165–175.
Loze, I. A. 1987. = Лозе И. А. Изображения человека в искусстве каменного века Восточной Прибалтики. – Первобытное искусство. Антропоморфные изображения. Ed. Р. С. Васильевский. Новосибирск, 37–48.
Moora, H. 1930. Muinasaeg. – Pärnumaa. Maateaduslik, tulunduslik ja ajalooline kirjeldus. Ed.
A. Tammekann. Eesti Kirjanduse Seltsi Kirjastus, Tartu, 58–168.
Moora, H. 1932. Die Vorzeit Estlands. Akadeemiline Kooperatiiv, Tartu.
Nilsson Stutz, L. 2003. Embodied Rituals and Ritualized Bodies. Tracing Ritual Practices in Late Mesolithic Burials. (Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, 46.) Lund.
Nilsson Stutz, L. 2006. Unwrapping the dead. Searching for evidence of wrappings in the mortuary practices at Zvejnieki. – Back to the Origin. Eds L. Larsson & I. Zagorska. (Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, series in 80, No. 52.) Almqvist & Wiksell International, Lund, 217–233.
Nuñez, M. G. 1986. Clay figurines from the Åland Islands and Mainland Finland. – Fennoscandia Archaeologica, III, 17–34.
Oshibkina, S. V. 1990. The material culture of the Veretye-type sites in the region to the east of Lake Onega. – The Mesolithic in Europe. Ed. C. Bonsall. John Donald Publishers LtD, Edinburgh, 402–413.
Petré, B. 1980. Björnfällen i begravningsritualen – statusobjekt speglande regional skinnhandel? – Fornvännen, 1, 5–14.
Popova, T. 2001. New discoveries on the sculptures of Oleni Island. – Folklore. An Electronic Journal of Folklore, 18–19, 127–136.
http://dx.doi.org/10.7592/FEJF2001.18.oleni_is
Reimer, P. J., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J. W., Blackwell, P. G., Bronk Ramsey, C., Grootes, P. M., Guilderson, T. P., Haflidason, H., Hajdas, I., Hatté, C., Heaton, T. J., Hoffmann, D. L., Hogg, A. G., Hughen, K. A., Kaiser, K. F., Kromer, B., Manning, S. W., Niu, M., Reimer, R. W., Richards, D. A., Scott, E. M., Southon, J. R., Staff, R. A., Turney, C. S. M. & van der Plicht, J. 2013. IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0–50,000 years cal BP. – Radiocarbon, 55: 4, 1869–1887.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2458/azu_js_rc.55.16947
Rosentau, A., Hang, T., Kriiska, A., Vassiljev, J., Aunap, R., Heinsalu, A., Saarse, L., Veski, S. & Oja, T. 2011. Palaeogeographic model for the SW Estonian coastal zone of the Baltic Sea. – The Baltic Sea Basin. Eds J. Harff, S. Björck & P. Hoth. Springer, Heidelberg, Dordrecht, London, New York, 165–188.
Rosentau, A., Muru, M., Kriiska, A., Subetto, D., Vassiljev, J., Hang, T., Gerasimov, D., Nordqvist, K., Ludikova, A., Lõugas, L., Raig, H., Kihno, K., Aunap, R. & Letyka, N. 2013. Stone Age settlement and Holocene shore displacement in the Narva–Luga Klint Bay area, eastern Gulf of Finland. – Boreas, 42: 4, 912–931.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bor.12004
Saluäär, U., Ots, M. & Vaher, E. 2002. Õllepruuli ja muinasuurija Bliebernichti kirjad professor Tallgrenile. – Pärnumaa ajalugu. Vihik 5. Eds A. Vunk & I. Laurik. Pärnu Maavalitsus, 99–130.
Sigvallius, B. 1994. Funeral Pyers. Iron Age Cremations in North Spånga. (Thesis and Papers in Osteology, 1.) Stockholm University.
Studzitskaya, S. V. 1985. = Студзицкая С. В. Изображение человека в мелкой пластике неолитических племен лесной зоны Европейской части СССР. – Новые материалы по истории племен Восточной Европы в эпоху камня и бронзы. Ed. Н. Я. Нерперт. Москва, 100–118.
Tallgren, A. M. 1922. Zur Archäologie Eestis, I. Vom anfang der Besiedelung bis etwa 500 n.
Chr. Dorpat.
Tõrv, M. in print. Persistent Practices. A Multi-disciplinary Study of Hunter-Gatherer Mortuary Remains from c. 6500–2600 cal. BC, Estonia. PhD thesis.
Vallikivi, L. 2005. Arktika nomaadid šamanismi ja kristluse vahel. (Studia Ethnologica et Folkloristica Tartuensia, 8.) Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus.
Watson, B. 2011. The eyes have it: human perception and anthropomorphic faces in world rock art. – Antiquity, 85(327), 87–98.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00067454
Zagorska, I. 2008. The use of ochre in Stone Age burials of the East Baltic. – The Materiality of Death: Bodies, Burials, Beliefs. Eds F. Fahlander & T. Oestigaard. (BAR International Series, 1768.) Oxford, 115–124.
Zagorskis, F. 1987. Zvejnieku akmens laikmeta kapulauks. Riga.